By Hands Now Known: Jim Crow's Legal Executioners

​​The Arab Center for Research and Policy Studies published the book **Unhappy Moral Conscience: Human and Religious Controversy in the Heritage of Islam**, written by Shafiq Muhammad Akrekar, in 424 pages. The book includes an executive summary, an introduction, seven chapters divided into three sections, and general conclusions, in addition to references and a general index. It deals with the intersection of the moral and religious dimensions in the Islamic heritage, focusing on the internal conflict of the Muslim soul between universalism (moral values ​​that transcend religious particularities) and autonomia (the human ability to self-legislate and be guided by reason). This conflict produced a miserable moral awareness torn between submission to religious orders and commitment to religious particularism on the one hand, and being guided by reason while adopting human universalism on the other hand. The book divides the study of this awareness into three sections, represented by an introduction to its formation from the time of the Muhammadan call until the control of Sharia law, a complex through the manifestations of awareness in the models of Abdullah ibn al-Muqaffa, Ibn Abi al-Dunya, and Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, and a historical solution embodied by the Mu’tazilites and Muhammad ibn Zakaria al-Razi.